Richard Cadena

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cadena, Richard.
   Electricity for the entertainment electrician & technician / Richard Cadena.
     p. cm.
   Includes bibliographical references and index.
   ISBNxxx-xxx-xxxx5-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)  1.  Electricity–Safety
measures.  2.  Electric circuits.  3.  Electric wiring, Indoor.  4.  Stage
lighting.  5.  Leisure industry–Electric equipment.  I.  Title.
   TK152.Cxxx-xxx-xxxx
iv    621.319’24–dc22
           xxx-xxx-xxxx

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN:xxx-xxx-xxxx5-3

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This book is dedicated to the most dedicated people I know — Yolanda and
Noe Cadena, a.k.a., Mom and Dad.
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Contents

Preface . ................................................................................................................ xiii

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... xv

Introduction................................................................................................................ xvii
What Is an Entertainment Electrician?......................................... xvii
Technology Moves On..................................................................... xviii
Keeping Up with Technology........................................................... xix
Overview................................................................................................. xx
Electricity Kills, But It Doesn’t Have To...................................... xxiii

  Chapter 1 The Theory of Electricity................................................................1
What Is Electricity?.................................................................................1 vii
Electrons in Motion................................................................................2
The Atom..................................................................................................2
Subatomic Particles...............................................................................3
Electrostatic Charges............................................................................3
Electronic Drift........................................................................................5
Conductive Properties of Materials..................................................6
Current Convention................................................................................8
Summary...................................................................................................9
Understanding Electricity.....................................................................9

  Chapter 2 Electrical Concepts..........................................................................11
Pulling Back the Veil of Mystery.......................................................11
Voltage.....................................................................................................11
Current....................................................................................................12
Resistance.............................................................................................. 13
Power...................................................................................................... 13
Energy.....................................................................................................14
Contents

SI Units of Measure: Amperes, Volts, Ohms, Siemens,
  Joules, Watts....................................................................................15
The Ampere.......................................................................................15
The Volt..............................................................................................16
The Ohm.............................................................................................16
The Siemens......................................................................................16
The Joule............................................................................................18
The Watt.............................................................................................18
Conservation of Energy.....................................................................20
Understanding Electrical Concepts................................................20

  Chapter 3 DC Electricity.....................................................................................21
The DC Circuit...................................................................................... 23
Ohm’s Law............................................................................................24
DC Power.............................................................................................. 26
Understanding DC Electricity........................................................... 29

  Chapter 4 AC Electricity..................................................................................... 31
Magnetism.............................................................................................. 31
viii Electromagnetism............................................................................... 33
Magnetic Induction............................................................................. 35
Faraday’s Law of Induction.............................................................. 35
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.............................................................. 37
The AC Generator............................................................................... 38
Exercise Your Knowledge of Sinewaves......................................42
Frequency.............................................................................................45
The Sinewave.......................................................................................46
RMS Value............................................................................................ 47
True RMS Meters................................................................................49
Understanding AC Electricity........................................................... 55

  Chapter 5 Circuit Elements.............................................................................. 59
Series Resistance................................................................................60
Parallel Resistance..............................................................................61
Series/Parallel Resistance................................................................ 63
Real-World Resistance......................................................................64
Impedance............................................................................................. 65
Contents

Reactance.............................................................................................. 65
Inductors................................................................................................ 65
Capacitors..............................................................................................68
Phase Angles......................................................................................... 71
Complex Impedance........................................................................... 72
Transformers........................................................................................ 75
Understanding Circuit Elements...................................................... 78

  Chapter 6 AC Power............................................................................................ 83
AC Power Formula.............................................................................. 85
Power Factor....................................................................................... 85
Power Factor Correction...................................................................86
Complex Power.................................................................................... 87
Three-Phase Power............................................................................89
Three-Phase Power Calculations.....................................................91
Understanding AC Power................................................................. 93

  Chapter 7 Electrical Safety............................................................................. 95
Electric Shock....................................................................................... 95
Effects of Electrical Current.............................................................96 ix
Arc Flash and Arc Blast..................................................................... 97
Lockout/Tagout.................................................................................100
Drugs and Alcohol.............................................................................102
Understanding Electrical Safety...................................................102

  Chapter 8 Grounding/Earthing...................................................................105
The Complete Circuit........................................................................105
Earthing/Grounding..........................................................................106
Zero-Volt Reference........................................................................106
Voltage Stability................................................................................108
Safety Grounding..............................................................................108
Grounded Versus Grounding Versus Bonding............................110
Uni-Grounding Versus Multi-Grounding.......................................110
Ground Loops.......................................................................................111
Balanced Power Systems................................................................112
Technical Earth/Technical Ground................................................114
Understanding Grounding Concepts.............................................114
Contents

  Chapter 9 Overcurrent and Undercurrent Protection..................... 117
Fuses..................................................................................................... 117
Circuit Breakers..................................................................................121
Circuit Breaker Ratings.................................................................... 125
Residual Current Devices................................................................ 125
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters.................................................. 126
Class A GFCIs..................................................................................... 128
Understanding Overcurrent and Undercurrent
Protection............................................................................................ 129

Chapter 10 Power Distribution Systems................................................... 131
Three-Phase Four-Wire Plus Ground Wye or Star.................. 132
Three-Phase Four-Wire Delta (High Leg Delta).......................137
Single-Phase Three-Wire Earthed Midpoint..............................137
Single-Phase Three-Wire Earthed End of Phase..................... 139
Color Codes......................................................................................... 139
Balancing Three-Phase Loads.......................................................140
Understanding Power Distribution Systems.............................142

Chapter 11 Dimming Systems........................................................................ 147
Phase-Control Dimming.................................................................. 147
Reverse Phase-Control Dimming................................................... 151
Third-Order Harmonics.................................................................... 152
Sinewave Dimming........................................................................... 156
Feeder Transformers for Non-Linear Loads...............................157
K-Rated Transformers..................................................................... 158
Harmonic Mitigating Transformers............................................... 159
Harmonic Suppression Systems....................................................161
Understanding Dimming Systems................................................ 162

Chapter 12 Best Practices, Codes, and Regulations.......................... 165
Tying In................................................................................................166
Single-Core Conductors, Feeder Cable, and Tails.................... 169
Single-Pole Connectors....................................................................173
Neutral Conductor Sizing................................................................ 182
Portable Power Distribution Systems.........................................184
Branch Circuits or Final Circuits.................................................... 187
Contents

Breakouts or Spiders........................................................................191
Stage Pin Connectors......................................................................194
NEMA Connectors............................................................................194
PowerCon............................................................................................196
15-Amp Plugs.....................................................................................198
CEE-Form Connectors.....................................................................198
IEC Connectors..................................................................................198
Schuko Connectors...........................................................................199
Understanding Best Practices, Codes, and Regulations.......200

Epilogue . ............................................................................................................. 203

Appendix 1 Useful Formulas................................................................................ 207

Appendix 2 Conversion Factors.......................................................................... 209

Appendix 3 Energy Conversion Factors.............................................................211

Appendix 4 Scientific, Exponential, and Engineering Notation................... 213

Appendix 5 Answers to Practice Problems...................................................... 215

References . ............................................................................................................. 239 xi

Index . ..............................................................................................................241
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Preface

There’s an ancient story of a martial arts master who attempts to give
one of his students, the “chosen one,” the secret to harnessing the power
of the universe. But the two of them discover that the sacred scroll con-
taining the secret is nothing but a blank reflective surface. Eventually,
the student realizes the true meaning of the scroll, that the power of the
universe is already inside of him. Armed with this newfound knowledge,
the student becomes the master and defeats the evil warrior.

You may recognize this ancient story as the plot of the movie Kung Fu
Panda. Yes, I realize that it’s a children’s animated movie about a noodle-
making panda bear with no formal martial arts training who is chosen
over five highly skilled experts to fulfill a prophecy by defeating the
villain. And I do realize that the movie is designed to appeal more to
the funny bone than to the think muscle. But as I was in the process of xiii
writing the final chapter of this book, I took my 11-year-old daughter to
see this movie. I couldn’t help thinking that its message, that the greatest
power is inside of us all, is exactly the message that I want to convey to
you, the reader, about this book. The “sacred scroll” that you now hold
in your hands is nothing more than a highly reflective surface. It merely
reflects the incredible power of your mind to visualize, analyze, and
comprehend. That power is inside of you, and my hope is that this book
will help you bring it out.

But before you undertake the journey through these pages, take some
time to reflect on what it might take to reach your goals. How much
effort are you willing to put forth? How much time can you spend each
day working to achieve your desires? Someone once said that if you’re
interested in something you’ll do what’s convenient, but if you’re
passionate about something you’ll do whatever it takes. No student has
ever mastered a subject without making great sacrifices. It takes time,
dedication, hard work, contemplation, and concerted effort. It’s no
Preface

different whether we’re talking about the martial arts, theatre arts, per-
forming arts, or the art of mastering electricity.

The information contained in this book is not difficult, but it can be
challenging. Some of the concepts can challenge your ability to straddle
the line between abstract thought and real-world application. But if you
love the production arts as much as Po, the kung fu panda, loves food
and the martial arts, then you too are capable of impressive feats of art-
istry. All it takes now is for you to see your reflection in these pages. So
I challenge you to dive into this book with the same enthusiasm as a
panda bear fighting for a dumpling.

Namaste.

xiv
Acknowledgments

If I were to acknowledge everyone who truly deserves credit for helping
me complete this book, the musical conductor would start playing the
music long before I was finished reading my list. But there are a few key
people who need to be acknowledged before they drag me from the stage
with the big hook. Among them are the people who incubated the idea
for this book, including John Huntington, Associate Professor of Enter-
tainment Technology at New York City College of Technology, and Cara
Anderson, Acquisitions Editor at Focal Press. Also, Valerie Geary, Associ-
ate Acquisitions Editor, Danielle Monroe, Associate Acquisitions Editor
(yes, it’s finally done!), and all the wonderful people at Focal Press
deserve special thanks for their hard work and exceptionally positive
attitude.
xv
And then there are a few people who were gracious enough to answer a
barrage of questions and never once complained. In alphabetical order,
they are: Tony Giovannetti, The Metropolitan Opera; Mitch Hefter,
Entertainment Technology; Dave Isherwood, White Light, Ltd.; François
Juliat, Robert Juliat; Fred Mikeska, AC Lighting; E. H. B. “Chipmonck”
Monck; Daniele Peroni, Link S.R.L.; Bill Plachy, I.A.T.S.E. Local 1; M.
Eric Rimes, Lighting Faculty at North Carolina School of the Arts; Bob
See, See Factor Lighting; Steve Terry, ETC; Ken Vannice, Leviton; Richard